Pediatric Neurology
Volume 40, Issue 3 , Pages 205-214 , March 2009

Advances in Perinatal Ischemic Stroke

  • Adam Kirton, MD, MSc

      Affiliations

    • Division of Neurology, Alberta Children's Hospital, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
    • Corresponding Author InformationCommunications should be addressed to: Dr. Kirton; Division of Neurology; Alberta Children's Hospital; 2888 Shaganappi Trail NW; Calgary, AB T3B 6A8; Canada.
  • ,
  • Gabrielle deVeber, MD, MSc

      Affiliations

    • Children's Stroke Program, Division of Neurology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Received 30 July 2008 ,Accepted 17 September 2008.

References 

  1. Raju TN, Nelson KB, Ferriero D, Lynch JK NICHD-NINDS Perinatal Stroke Workshop Participants. Ischemic perinatal stroke: summary of a workshop sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Pediatrics. 2007;120:609–616
  2. Kirton A, deVeber G. Perinatal ischemic stroke. Stroke Rev. 2006;10:38–47
  3. Kirton A, deVeber G, Pontigon AM, MacGregor D, Shroff M. Presumed perinatal ischemic stroke: vascular classification predicts outcomes. Ann Neurol. 2008;63:436–443
  4. Benders MJ, Groenendaal F, Uiterwaal CS, et al. Maternal and infant characteristics associated with perinatal arterial stroke in the preterm infant. Stroke. 2007;38:1759–1765
  5. deVeber G Canadian Paediatric Ischemic Stroke Study Group. Canadian Paediatric Ischemic Stroke Registry: Analysis of children with arterial ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2000;48:514;(abstract)
  6. Lynch JK, Nelson KB. Epidemiology of perinatal stroke. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2001;13:499–505
  7. Nelson KB, Lynch JK. Stroke in newborn infants. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3:150–158
  8. Estan J, Hope P. Unilateral neonatal cerebral infarction in full term infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1997;76:F88–F93
  9. Schulzke S, Weber P, Luetschg J, Fahnenstich H. Incidence and diagnosis of unilateral arterial cerebral infarction in newborn infants. J Perinat Med. 2005;33:170–175
  10. Schneider AT, Kissela B, Woo D, et al. Ischemic stroke subtypes: a population-based study of incidence rates among blacks and whites. Stroke. 2004;35:1552–1556
  11. Lee J, Croen LA, Backstrand KH, et al. Maternal and infant characteristics associated with perinatal arterial stroke in the infant. JAMA. 2005;293:723–729
  12. deVeber G, Adams M, Andrew M Canadian Pediatric Ischemic Stroke Study Group. Neonatal cerebral thromboembolism: clinical and radiographic features. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:725;(abstract)
  13. Rafay MF, Tan-Dy C, Al-Futaisi A, et al. Predictive value of seizure and EEG features in the diagnosis of neonatal stroke and hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. Ann Neurol. 2005;58(9 Suppl):S104;(abstract)
  14. Miller V. Neonatal cerebral infarction. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2000;7:278–288
  15. Mercuri E, Cowan F. Cerebral infarction in the newborn infant: review of the literature and personal experience. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 1999;3:255–263
  16. Trauner DA, Chase C, Walker P, Wulfeck B. Neurologic profiles of infants and children after perinatal stroke. Pediatr Neurol. 1993;9:383–386
  17. Sran S, Baumann R. Outcome of neonatal stroke. Am J Dis Child. 1988;142:1086–1087
  18. deVeber G, MacGregor D, Curtis R, et al. Neurological outcome in survivors of neonatal arterial ischemic stroke. Pediatr Res. 2003;53:A537;(abstract)
  19. de Vries LS, Groenendaal F, Eken P, van Haastert IC, Rademaker KJ, Meiners LC. Infarcts in the vascular distribution of the middle cerebral artery in preterm and fullterm infants. Neuropediatrics. 1997;28:88–96
  20. deVeber G, Andrew M, Adams C, et al. Canadian Pediatric Ischemic Stroke Study Group Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis in children. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:417–423
  21. Wu YW, Miller SP, Chin K, et al. Multiple risk factors in neonatal sinovenous thrombosis. Neurology. 2002;59:438–440
  22. Fitzgerald KC, Williams LS, Garg BP, Carvalho KS, Golomb MR. Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis in the neonate. Arch Neurol. 2006;63:405–409
  23. Wu YW, Hamrick SE, Miller SP, et al. Intraventricular hemorrhage in term neonates caused by sinovenous thrombosis. Ann Neurol. 2003;54:123–126
  24. Moharir M, Shroff M, MacGregor D, Adams M, Bharuca P, deVeber G. Clinical and radiographic features of thrombosis propagation in neonatal and childhood cerebral sinovenous thrombosis. Ann Neurol. 2006;60(10 Suppl):S141;(abstract)
  25. Golomb MR, MacGregor DL, Domi T, et al. Presumed pre- or perinatal arterial ischemic stroke: risk factors and outcomes. Ann Neurol. 2001;50:163–168
  26. Ozduman K, Pober BR, Barnes P, et al. Fetal stroke. Pediatr Neurol. 2004;30:151–162
  27. Govaert P, Matthys E, Zecic A, Roelens F, Oostra A, Vanzieleghem B. Perinatal cortical infarction within middle cerebral artery trunks. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2000;82:F59–F63
  28. Abels L, Lequin M, Govaert P. Sonographic templates of newborn perforator stroke. Pediatr Radiol. 2006;36:663–669
  29. de Vries LS, Rademaker KJ, Groenendaal F, et al. Correlation between neonatal cranial ultrasound, MRI in infancy and neurodevelopmental outcome in infants with a large intraventricular haemorrhage with or without unilateral parenchymal involvement. Neuropediatrics. 1998;29:180–188
  30. de Vries LS, Roelants-van Rijn AM, Rademaker KJ, van Haastert IC, Beek FJ, Groenendaal F. Unilateral parenchymal haemorrhagic infarction in the preterm infant. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2001;5:139–149
  31. Takanashi J, Barkovich AJ, Ferriero DM, Suzuki H, Kohno Y. Widening spectrum of congenital hemiplegia: periventricular venous infarction in term neonates. Neurology. 2003;61:531–533
  32. Takanashi J, Tada H, Barkovich AJ, Kohno Y. Magnetic resonance imaging confirms periventricular venous infarction in a term-born child with congenital hemiplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:706–708
  33. Golomb MR, Dick PT, MacGregor DL, Armstrong DC, deVeber GA. Cranial ultrasonography has a low sensitivity for detecting arterial ischemic stroke in term neonates. J Child Neurol. 2003;18:98–103
  34. Shroff M, deVeber G. Sinovenous thrombosis in children. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2003;13:115–138
  35. Fullerton HJ, Wu YW, Sidney S, Johnston SC. Risk of recurrent childhood arterial ischemic stroke in a population-based cohort: the importance of cerebrovascular imaging. Pediatrics. 2007;119:495–501
  36. Lynch JK, Hirtz DG, deVeber G, Nelson KB Workshop Participants. Report of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke workshop on perinatal and childhood stroke. Pediatrics. 2002;109:116–123
  37. Sreenan C, Bhargava R, Robertson CM. Cerebral infarction in the term newborn: clinical presentation and long-term outcome. J Pediatr. 2000;137:351–355
  38. de Vries LS, Van der Grond J, Van Haastert IC, Groenendaal F. Prediction of outcome in new-born infants with arterial ischaemic stroke using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Neuropediatrics. 2005;36:12–20
  39. Kirton A, Shroff M, Visvanathan T, deVeber G. Quantified corticospinal tract diffusion restriction predicts neonatal stroke outcome. Stroke. 2007;38:974–980
  40. Barkovich AJ, Miller SP, Bartha A, et al. MR imaging, MR spectroscopy, and diffusion tensor imaging of sequential studies in neonates with encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27:533–547
  41. Seghier ML, Lazeyras F, Zimine S, et al. Combination of event-related fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging in an infant with perinatal stroke. Neuroimage. 2004;21:463–472
  42. Heller SL, Heier LA, Watts R, et al. Evidence of cerebral reorganization following perinatal stroke demonstrated with fMRI and DTI tractography. Clin Imaging. 2005;29:283–287
  43. Staudt M, Grodd W, Gerloff C, Erb M, Stitz J, Krägeloh-Mann I. Two types of ipsilateral reorganization in congenital hemiparesis: a TMS and fMRI study. Brain. 2002;125:2222–2237
  44. deVeber G, Kirton A CPISR Study Group. Arterial ischemic stroke in children. Ann Neurol. 2006;60(10 Suppl):115;(abstract)
  45. Heller C, Heinecke A, Junker R, et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis in children: a multifactorial origin. Circulation. 2003;108:1362–1367
  46. James AH, Bushnell CD, Jamison MG, Myers ER. Incidence and risk factors for stroke in pregnancy and the puerperium. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:509–516
  47. Nelson KB. Perinatal ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2007;38(2 Suppl):742–745
  48. Wu YW, March WM, Croen LA, Grether JK, Escobar GJ, Newman TB. Perinatal stroke in children with motor impairment: a population-based study. Pediatrics. 2004;114:612–619
  49. Curry CJ, Bhullar S, Holmes J, Delozier CD, Roeder ER, Hutchison HT. Risk factors for perinatal arterial stroke: a study of 60 mother–child pairs. Pediatr Neurol. 2007;37:99–107
  50. Redline RW. Severe fetal placental vascular lesions in term infants with neurologic impairment. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;192:452–457
  51. Kraus FT. Cerebral palsy and thrombi in placental vessels of the fetus: insights from litigation. Hum Pathol. 1997;28:246–248
  52. Kraus FT, Acheen VI. Fetal thrombotic vasculopathy in the placenta: cerebral thrombi and infarcts, coagulopathies, and cerebral palsy. Hum Pathol. 1999;30:759–769
  53. Burke CJ, Tannenberg AE, Payton DJ. Ischaemic cerebral injury, intrauterine growth retardation, and placental infarction. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997;39:726–730
  54. Redline RW, Pappin A. Fetal thrombotic vasculopathy: the clinical significance of extensive avascular villi. Hum Pathol. 1995;26:80–85
  55. Ramaswamy V, Miller SP, Barkovich AJ, Partridge JC, Ferriero DM. Perinatal stroke in term infants with neonatal encephalopathy. Neurology. 2004;62:2088–2091
  56. Wu YW, Lynch JK, Nelson KB. Perinatal arterial stroke: understanding mechanisms and outcomes. Semin Neurol. 2005;25:424–434
  57. King WJ, MacKay M, Sirnick A Canadian Shaken Baby Study Group. Shaken baby syndrome in Canada: clinical characteristics and outcomes of hospital cases. CMAJ. 2003;168:155–159
  58. Lequin MH, Peeters EA, Holscher HC, de Krijger R, Govaert P. Arterial infarction caused by carotid artery dissection in the neonate. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2004;8:155–160
  59. deVeber G, Monagle P, Chan A, et al. Prothrombotic disorders in infants and children with cerebral thromboembolism. Arch Neurol. 1998;55:1539–1543
  60. Barnes C, deVeber G. Prothrombotic abnormalities in childhood ischaemic stroke. Thromb Res. 2006;118:67–74
  61. Günther G, Junker R, Sträter R, et al. Childhood Stroke Study Group Symptomatic ischemic stroke in full-term neonates: role of acquired and genetic prothrombotic risk factors [Erratum in: Stroke 2001;32:279]. Stroke. 2000;31:2437–2441
  62. Lynch JK, Nelson KB, Curry CJ, Grether JK. Cerebrovascular disorders in children with the factor V Leiden mutation. J Child Neurol. 2001;16:735–744
  63. Nowak-Göttl U, Sträter R, Heinecke A, et al. Lipoprotein (a) and genetic polymorphisms of clotting factor V, prothrombin, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase are risk factors of spontaneous ischemic stroke in childhood. Blood. 1999;94:3678–3682
  64. Golomb MR, Heiny M, Garg BP. Two cousins with neonatal stroke, PAI-1 4G variant and MTHFR A1298C mutation. J Child Neurol. 2007;22:753–755
  65. Lao TT, Yin JA, Yuen PM. Coagulation and anticoagulation systems in newborns—correlation with their mothers at delivery: lower levels of anticoagulants and fibrinolytic activity in the newborn. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1990;29:181–184
  66. Sébire G, Tabarki B, Saunders DE, et al. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in children: risk factors, presentation, diagnosis and outcome. Brain. 2005;128:477–489
  67. Kirkham FJ, Prengler M, Hewes DK, Ganesan V. Risk factors for arterial ischemic stroke in children. J Child Neurol. 2000;15:299–307
  68. Domi T, Edgell D, McCrindle BW, et al. Frequency and predictors of vasoocclusive strokes associated with congenital heart disease. Ann Neurol. 2002;52(3 Suppl):S129–S130(abstract)
  69. Monagle P, Karl TR. Thromboembolic problems after the Fontan operation. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg Pediatr Card Surg Annu. 2002;5:36–47
  70. McQuillen PS, Hamrick SE, Perez MJ, et al. Balloon atrial septostomy is associated with preoperative stroke in neonates with transposition of the great arteries. Circulation. 2006;113:280–285
  71. McQuillen PS, Barkovich AJ, Hamrick SE, et al. Temporal and anatomic risk profile of brain injury with neonatal repair of congenital heart defects. Stroke. 2007;38(2 Suppl):736–741
  72. Pellicer A, Cabañas F, García-Alix A, Pérez-Higueras A, Quero J. Stroke in neonates with cardiac right-to-left shunt. Brain Dev. 1992;14:381–385
  73. Lynch JK. Cerebrovascular disorders in children. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2004;4:129–138
  74. Miller G, Mamourian AC, Tesman JR, Baylen BG, Myers JL. Long-term MRI changes in brain after pediatric open heart surgery. J Child Neurol. 1994;9:390–397
  75. Kirkham FJ. Recognition and prevention of neurological complications in pediatric cardiac surgery. Pediatr Cardiol. 1998;19:331–345
  76. Chang CJ, Chang WN, Huang LT, et al. Cerebral infarction in perinatal and childhood bacterial meningitis. QJM. 2003;96:755–762
  77. Takeoka M, Takahashi T. Infectious and inflammatory disorders of the circulatory system and stroke in childhood. Curr Opin Neurol. 2002;15:159–164
  78. Fitzgerald KC, Golomb MR. Neonatal arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis associated with meningitis. J Child Neurol. 2007;22:818–822
  79. Wu YW, Escobar GJ, Grether JK, Croen LA, Greene JD, Newman TB. Chorioamnionitis and cerebral palsy in term and near-term infants. JAMA. 2003;290:2677–2684
  80. Walstab J, Bell R, Reddihough D, Brennecke S, Bessell C, Beischer N. Antenatal and intrapartum antecedents of cerebral palsy: a case-control study. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2002;42:138–146
  81. Grether JK, Nelson KB. Maternal infection and cerebral palsy in infants of normal birth weight [Erratum in: JAMA 1998;279:118]. JAMA. 1997;278:207–211
  82. Ment LR, Ehrenkranz RA, Duncan CC. Bacterial meningitis as an etiology of perinatal cerebral infarction. Pediatr Neurol. 1986;2:276–279
  83. Golomb M, Dick P, MacGregor D, Curtis R, deVeber G. Neonatal arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis are more commonly diagnosed in males. Stroke. 2003;34:288;(abstract)
  84. Ganesan V, Prengler M, McShane MA, Wade AM, Kirkham FJ. Investigation of risk factors in children with arterial ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2003;53:167–173
  85. Bhattacharya JJ, Luo CB, Alvarez H, Rodesch G, Pongpech S, Lasjaunias PL. PHACES syndrome: a review of eight previously unreported cases with late arterial occlusions. Neuroradiology. 2004;46:227–233
  86. Heier LA, Carpanzano CR, Mast J, Brill PW, Winchester P, Deck MD. Maternal cocaine abuse: the spectrum of radiologic abnormalities in the neonatal CNS. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1991;12:951–956
  87. Finkel RS, Zarlengo KM. Blue cohosh and perinatal stroke. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:302–303
  88. Reynolds EW, Riel-Romero RM, Bada HS. Neonatal abstinence syndrome and cerebral infarction following maternal codeine use during pregnancy. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2007;46:639–645
  89. Tan M, Shroff M, Moharir M, Pontigon A, deVeber G, Kirton A. Occipital bone compression of the superior sagittal sinus as a contributory factor in neonatal cerebral sinovenous thrombosis. Can J Neurol Sci. 2007;34:2S59
  90. Kirton A, deVeber G. Cerebral palsy secondary to perinatal ischemic stroke. Clin Perinatol. 2006;33:367–386
  91. Ward NS, Cohen LG. Mechanisms underlying recovery of motor function after stroke. Arch Neurol. 2004;61:1844–1848
  92. Ferriero DM. Neonatal brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1985–1995
  93. Hutchison JS, Ichord R, Guerguerian AM, deVeber G. Cerebrovascular disorders. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2004;11:139–146
  94. Mesplès B, Plaisant F, Fontaine RH, Gressens P. Pathophysiology of neonatal brain lesions: lessons from animal models of excitotoxicity. Acta Paediatr. 2005;94:185–190
  95. Ashwal S, Pearce WJ. Animal models of neonatal stroke. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2001;13:506–516
  96. Becker K. Intensive care unit management of the stroke patient. Neurol Clin. 2000;18:439–454
  97. Yager JY, Armstrong EA, Jaharus C, Saucier DM, Wirrell EC. Preventing hyperthermia decreases brain damage following neonatal hypoxic–ischemic seizures. Brain Res. 2004;1011:48–57
  98. Wirrell EC, Armstrong EA, Osman LD, Yager JY. Prolonged seizures exacerbate perinatal hypoxic–ischemic brain damage. Pediatr Res. 2001;50:445–454
  99. Gunn AJ, Gluckman PD. Head cooling for neonatal encephalopathy: the state of the art. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2007;50:636–651
  100. Balduini W, Carloni S, Mazzoni E, Cimino M. New therapeutic strategies in perinatal stroke. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord. 2004;3:315–323
  101. Monagle P, Chan A, Massicotte P, Chalmers E, Michelson AD. Antithrombotic therapy in children: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126(3 Suppl):645S-87S
  102. deVeber G, Chan A, Monagle P, et al. Anticoagulation therapy in pediatric patients with sinovenous thrombosis: a cohort study. Arch Neurol. 1998;55:1533–1537
  103. Kurnik K, Kosch A, Sträter R, Schobess R, Heller C, Nowak-Göttl U Childhood Stroke Study Group. Recurrent thromboembolism in infants and children suffering from symptomatic neonatal arterial stroke: a prospective follow-up study. Stroke. 2003;34:2887–2892
  104. Paediatric Stroke Working Group. Stroke in childhood: clinical guidelines for diagnosis, management and rehabilitation. London: Royal College of Physicians of London, 2004. Available at: http://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/pubs/books/childstroke/childstroke_guidelines.pdf
  105. Taub E, Ramey SL, DeLuca S, Echols K. Efficacy of constraint-induced movement therapy for children with cerebral palsy with asymmetric motor impairment. Pediatrics. 2004;113:305–312
  106. Willis JK, Morello A, Davie A, Rice JC, Bennett JT. Forced use treatment of childhood hemiparesis. Pediatrics. 2002;110:94–96
  107. Eliasson AC, Krumlinde-Sundholm L, Shaw K, Wang C. Effects of constraint-induced movement therapy in young children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy: an adapted model. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:266–275
  108. Wyllie E, Lachhwani DK, Gupta A, et al. Successful surgery for epilepsy due to early brain lesions despite generalized EEG findings. Neurology. 2007;69:389–397
  109. Hagberg B, Hagberg G, Beckung E, Uvebrant P. Changing panorama of cerebral palsy in Sweden: VIII. Prevalence and origin in the birth year period 1991-94. Acta Paediatr. 2001;90:271–277
  110. Nelson KB. Can we prevent cerebral palsy?. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1765–1769
  111. Lee J, Croen LA, Lindan C, et al. Predictors of outcome in perinatal arterial stroke: a population-based study. Ann Neurol. 2005;58:303–308
  112. Mercuri E, Jongmans M, Bouza H, et al. Congenital hemiplegia in children at school age: assessment of hand function in the non-hemiplegic hand and correlation with MRI. Neuropediatrics. 1999;30:8–13
  113. deVeber GA, MacGregor D, Curtis R, Mayank S. Neurologic outcome in survivors of childhood arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis. J Child Neurol. 2000;15:316–324
  114. Mercuri E, Barnett A, Rutherford M, et al. Neonatal cerebral infarction and neuromotor outcome at school age. Pediatrics. 2004;113:95–100
  115. Mercuri E, Rutherford M, Cowan F, et al. Early prognostic indicators of outcome in infants with neonatal cerebral infarction: a clinical, electroencephalogram, and magnetic resonance imaging study. Pediatrics. 1999;103:39–46
  116. McLinden A, Baird AD, Westmacott R, Anderson PE, deVeber G. Early cognitive outcome after neonatal stroke. J Child Neurol. 2007;22:1111–1116
  117. Golomb MR, Garg BP, Carvalho KS, Johnson CS, Williams LS. Perinatal stroke and the risk of developing childhood epilepsy. J Pediatr. 2007;151:409–413413.e1-2
  118. Boardman JP, Ganesan V, Rutherford MA, Saunders DE, Mercuri E, Cowan F. Magnetic resonance image correlates of hemiparesis after neonatal and childhood middle cerebral artery stroke. Pediatrics. 2005;115:321–326
  119. Taylor TN, Davis PH, Torner JC, Holmes J, Meyer JW, Jacobson MF. Lifetime cost of stroke in the United States. Stroke. 1996;27:1459–1466
  120. Mercuri E, Cowan F, Gupte G, et al. Prothrombotic disorders and abnormal neurodevelopmental outcome in infants with neonatal cerebral infarction. Pediatrics. 2001;107:1400–1404
  121. Goldenberg NA, Knapp-Clevenger R, Manco-Johnson MJ. Elevated plasma factor VIII and D-dimer levels as predictors of poor outcomes of thrombosis in children [Erratum in: N Engl J Med 2005;352:2146]. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1081–1088
  122. Mercuri E, Anker S, Guzzetta A, et al. Neonatal cerebral infarction and visual function at school age [Erratum in: Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2004;89:F187]. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003;88:F487–F491
  123. Bava S, Archibald SL, Trauner DA. Brain structure in prenatal stroke: quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis. J Child Neurol. 2007;22:841–847
  124. Ganesan V, Ng V, Chong WK, Kirkham FJ, Connelly A. Lesion volume, lesion location, and outcome after middle cerebral artery territory stroke. Arch Dis Child. 1999;81:295–300
  125. Ganesan V, Hogan A, Shack N, Gordon A, Isaacs E, Kirkham FJ. Outcome after ischaemic stroke in childhood. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:455–461
  126. Lansing AE, Max JE, Delis DC, et al. Verbal learning and memory after childhood stroke. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004;10:742–752

PII: S0887-8994(08)00479-7

doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.09.018

Pediatric Neurology
Volume 40, Issue 3 , Pages 205-214 , March 2009